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The predicted interaction footprint extends further toward the intracellular region, yielding a broad contact network that plausibly stabilizes an activation-compatible receptor architecture from the extracellular face toward the cytoplasmic side (Figure 4)

While the insulin receptor activates mainly the IP3k-PKB-ERK signaling cascade [88, 101], the GLP-1 and GIP receptors activate mainly the cAMP-PKA-CREB growth-factor signaling cascade in target cells (Fig

Data suggest that despite fluctuations in carnitine concentration due to its osmolytic pressure changes, carnitine maintains its energy production capacities and often osmolytic gradients can be harnessed for energy[19]