Illegal use refers to taking testosterone without a prescription or buying it from unverified sources, black-market sellers, or overseas pharmacies
The low barrier to entry for setting up a peptide trading company in China means that for every legitimate manufacturer with ISO 9001 certification and batch-specific Certificates of Analysis, there exist multiple intermediaries who buy low-grade material, repackage it, and sell it as premium product
No completed human Phase 2/3 trials
Panels that pair flux readouts (e.g., DHE2-OH-E for O 2 , compartment-targeted HyPer/roGFP-Orp for H 2 O 2 , peroxiredoxin redox state) with damage footprints (F-isoprostanes, carbonyls/nitrotyrosine, 8-oxoG) and iron/ferroptosis metrics (labile iron pool, oxidized phospholipids, GPX4 context) provide the attribution needed to separate signalling from injury, compare studies and titrate therapy