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Recent targeted therapies are focusing on molecular pathways implicated in OA progression, including TGF-/ALK5 signaling, Wnt/-catenin modulation, NF-B suppression, and ferroptosis inhibition (Tian et al., 2025

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IGF-1 is a secreted protein and acts through its plasma membrane bound receptor (IGF-1R)

Nat Immunol (2015) 16(5):44857.10.1038/ni.3153 103 KremerJMBlancoRBrzoskoMBurgos-VargasRHallandAMVernonEet alTocilizumab inhibits structural joint damage in rheumatoid arthritis patients with inadequate responses to methotrexate: results from the double-blind treatment phase of a randomized placebo-controlled trial of tocilizumab safety and prevention of structural joint damage at one year